This study material has been compiled from a combination of copy-pasted text and an audio lecture transcript, providing a comprehensive overview of a critical period in Turkish history.

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The Road to Lausanne: Çanakkale Crisis, Mudanya Armistice, and Pre-Treaty Developments

This study guide covers the pivotal events that shaped the conclusion of the Turkish War of Independence and laid the groundwork for the Treaty of Lausanne. It details the diplomatic and military maneuvers surrounding the Çanakkale Crisis, the terms and significance of the Mudanya Armistice, and the crucial political developments and instructions given to the Turkish delegation before the Lausanne Peace Conference.

1. The Çanakkale Crisis (September 1922) ⚔️

Following the liberation of İzmir, the Turkish army advanced northwestward with the strategic objective of reclaiming Thrace and Istanbul, which were still under Allied occupation. This movement led to a tense standoff known as the Çanakkale (Chanak) Crisis.

1.1. Escalation of Tensions

• Turkish Advance: After successful military operations, the Turkish army turned its attention towards the Dardanelles (Çanakkale) and the Bosporus, aiming to liberate these vital straits and Eastern Thrace.
• British Reaction: On September 4, 1922, British Prime Minister Lloyd George faced a critical situation. By September 13, the Turkish Army was ordered to advance towards Çanakkale. In response, Britain deployed troops to the Anatolian side of the Dardanelles.
• Near Confrontation: Despite the close proximity of Turkish and British forces, often within 20 to 30 meters, direct combat was averted.
• Turkish Diplomacy: The Turkish side consistently sought a diplomatic resolution, issuing strict orders to its troops not to engage in hostilities.
• Allied Disunity: Britain, lacking the full support of its allies (France and Italy had already withdrawn their forces), attempted to halt the Turkish advance through diplomatic channels.
• Turkish Stance: On September 18, General Pelle conveyed the Turkish position: military operations would not cease until Thrace was liberated, but also advised against entering the Straits region directly to avoid unnecessary conflict.

1.2. International Involvement

The crisis involved several international actors, including Britain, France, Italy, Japan, Romania, the Serb-Croat-Slovene State, and Greece. Discussions primarily focused on the cession of Thrace up to the Maritsa River.

2. The Mudanya Armistice (October 1922) 🤝

The diplomatic efforts to resolve the Çanakkale Crisis culminated in the Mudanya Armistice negotiations.

2.1. Negotiations and Participants

• Start Date: Negotiations commenced on October 3, 1922, in Mudanya.
• Key Figures:
  • Turkey: İsmet Pasha (Chief Negotiator)
  • Britain: General Harrington
  • France: General Charpy
  • Italy: General Monbelli
  • Greece: Mazarakis (military representative, not a signatory)
• Disputes: While Turkey's demand for Eastern Thrace, including Edirne and the Maritsa River, was largely accepted, significant disputes arose concerning the status of Istanbul and the Straits.
• Temporary Suspension: Negotiations were suspended on October 5, during which the Grand National Assembly of Turkey (GNAT) considered further military action, bringing Britain and Turkey to the brink of war.
• Resumption and Signing: Discussions resumed on October 7, leading to the signing of the armistice on October 11, 1922. It became effective between October 14 and 15, 1922.

2.2. Key Terms of the Armistice ✅

• End of Hostilities: The Turkish-Greek armed conflict ceased.
• Greek Withdrawal: Greek forces were to withdraw west of the Maritsa River.
• Allied Control: Strategic points in the region would remain under Allied control until a peace treaty was signed.
• Turkish Restrictions: Turkish forces were restricted from crossing specified lines in the Istanbul and İzmit regions.
• Eastern Thrace Evacuation: Greece was to evacuate Eastern Thrace within 15 days.
• GNAT Administration: Eastern Thrace was to be transferred to the administration of the Grand National Assembly of Turkey.
• Gendarmerie Force: The GNAT was permitted to maintain an 8,000-strong gendarmerie force in Eastern Thrace.
• Allied Presence: Allied troops would remain in their positions until the final peace treaty.

2.3. Significance of the Mudanya Armistice 💡

• Military Victory Confirmed: It served as the written testament to the successful military conclusion of the Turkish National Struggle.
• Diplomatic Triumph: Eastern Thrace was recovered diplomatically, without further armed conflict.
• Territorial Gain: Turkey reacquired its European territories.
• De Facto Recognition: Britain's signing of the armistice constituted a de facto recognition of the Turkish state represented by the GNAT.
• Political Repercussions:
  • The armistice invalidated British Prime Minister Lloyd George's Near East policy and led to the end of his political career.
  • It signaled the demise of Greek Prime Minister Venizelos's 'Megali Idea' (Great Idea).
  • The Turkish National Struggle is referred to in Greece as the 'Asia Minor Catastrophe.'
• Quote: "Friends, centuries rarely produce a genius. Look at our misfortune that such a great genius was bestowed upon the Turkish Nation in our age. What could be done against the genius of Mustafa Kemal?"

3. Developments Before the Lausanne Treaty (October-November 1922) 🗓️

The period immediately following Mudanya was crucial for preparing the ground for the definitive peace treaty.

3.1. Preparations for the Peace Conference

• Turkish Demands: Turkey requested that negotiations be held in İzmir and that representatives from the Soviet Union, Ukraine, and Georgia be invited to discuss the Straits.
• British Objections: Lord Curzon, representing Britain, rejected these proposals, citing concerns about:
  • Increased Russian influence if the Soviet Union participated.
  • Offending Venizelos if İzmir was chosen as the venue.
  • The perceived increase in Turkish prestige if a Turk chaired the conference.

3.2. Abolition of the Sultanate 👑

• Allied Strategy: The Allied powers attempted to create division within the Turkish leadership by inviting both the GNAT government and the Istanbul government to the peace conference.
• Ankara's Response: On October 29, 1922, Ankara demanded that Istanbul either send a representative chosen by Ankara or allow Ankara to select Istanbul's representative, challenging the dual authority.
• Mustafa Kemal's Stance: Mustafa Kemal famously declared: "Sovereignty is not given by anyone to anyone, by science; it is not given through negotiation or discussion. Sovereignty is taken by force and power. The Ottomans had seized the sovereignty of the Turkish nation by force; they had maintained this usurpation for six centuries. Now, the Turkish nation, saying 'enough' to these aggressors, has already taken its sovereignty into its own hands through rebellion. This is a fait accompli. The question is not whether we will give sovereignty to the nation or not. The issue is nothing more than declaring a reality that has already become a fait accompli. This will be done, no matter what. If those gathered here, the Assembly, and everyone accepts this naturally, I think it will be appropriate. Otherwise, the truth will still be determined according to its method. But perhaps some heads will be cut off."
• Outcome: This pivotal moment led to:
  • The resignation of Tevfik Pasha's cabinet on November 4, 1922.
  • The formal abolition of the Ottoman Sultanate.
  • The election of Abdülmecit Efendi as the last Caliph on November 19, 1922.

3.3. Turkish Delegation to Lausanne 🇹🇷

• Leadership: The Turkish delegation was led by İsmet Pasha.
• Members: Dr. Rıza Nur and Hasan Saka were also key members.

4. Instructions for the Lausanne Delegation 📚

The Turkish delegation was provided with a comprehensive set of instructions outlining Turkey's non-negotiable demands and strategic positions.

4.1. Key Principles and Red Lines ⚠️

• Capitulations: Absolutely unacceptable. The delegation was authorized to terminate negotiations if their abolition was not agreed upon.
• Armenian Homeland: An Armenian homeland was unacceptable. Negotiations would be terminated if this issue was raised.
• Sovereignty: No limitations on the Turkish army and navy were to be accepted.

4.2. Border Issues 🗺️

• Eastern Border: No Armenian homeland. If raised, negotiations would cease.
• Iraq Border: Demand for Süleymaniye, Kirkuk, and Mosul provinces. If difficulties arose, instructions from Ankara were to be sought. Economic concessions to the British regarding oil and other privileges could be considered.
• Syrian Border: Efforts to correct the border along a specific line (Re'si İbn Hayi, Harm, Müslimiye, Meskene, Euphrates Road, Derizor, Desert, and finally the southern border of Mosul Province).
• Aegean Islands: Act according to the situation; immediate annexation of islands close to the Turkish coast. Consult Ankara if unsuccessful.
• Thracian Border: Aim to secure the 1914 borders.
• Western Thrace: Apply the principle of Misak-ı Milli (National Pact), demanding a plebiscite.

4.3. Other Critical Issues ⚖️

• Straits and Gallipoli Peninsula: No foreign military forces acceptable. Inform Ankara if negotiations on this point necessitated withdrawal.
• Minorities: The principle of population exchange was established.
• Ottoman Debts: To be distributed among successor states, offset by reparations from Greece, or postponed for 20 years if necessary. The Public Debt Administration (Düyun-u Umumiye İdaresi) was to be abolished. Consult Ankara if difficulties arose.
• Foreign Institutions: All foreign institutions operating in Turkey were to be subject to Turkish laws.
• Countries Separated from Turkey: The special article of Misak-ı Milli was to be applied.
• Islamic Communities and Endowments: To be regulated according to existing treaties.

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This period, marked by military resolve and astute diplomacy, was instrumental in securing Turkey's independence and defining its modern borders and sovereignty, setting the stage for the final peace negotiations at Lausanne.