📚 HIS 103: Modern Turkish History Study Guide

Source Information: This study material has been compiled from a combination of copy-pasted text and a lecture audio transcript. All content has been organized and presented in English.

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🌍 Introduction to Modern Turkish History

This study guide provides a structured overview of the key concepts, reform processes, and the struggle for independence that shaped modern Turkish history, spanning from the late Ottoman Empire to the establishment of the Turkish Republic. We will explore fundamental terms, significant reform periods, pre-World War I conflicts, the impact of World War I, and the crucial events of the Turkish War of Independence.

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1. 📚 Key Terms in Modern Turkish History

Understanding these foundational terms is crucial for grasping the historical context.

• Modernization:

  • 📚 Definition: The transformation of a society from a rural and agrarian state to a more secular, urban, and industrial one. It involves replacing old methods with new ones.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: Think of "Modernization" as "Making things NEW and IMPROVED" – moving from old farms to new factories and cities.

• Westernization:

  • 📚 Definition: In the context of late Ottoman and early Turkish Republican history, it was often synonymous with modernization because European countries (like England, France, Italy) modernized earlier and served as models.
  • ⚠️ Important Note: While historically linked, today, modernization is a broader concept and not solely defined by Westernization.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Westernization" is "Modernization with a European Blueprint." The Ottomans looked West for their "new and improved" ideas.

• Revolution:

  • 📚 Definition: A radical and sudden change in society and its social structure, often accompanied by violence. It encompasses political, economic, social, and cultural transformations.
  • ✅ Key Characteristic: Radical, sudden, often violent, comprehensive change.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Revolution" is like a "Reboot" – a complete system overhaul, often forceful.

• Reform:

  • 📚 Definition: A change aimed at improving something that is wrong or corrupt, making it better. Reforms are typically limited and do not involve radical changes like a revolution.
  • ✅ Key Characteristic: Gradual, limited, improvement-focused change.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Reform" is like "Refurbishing" – making improvements to an existing structure, not tearing it down and rebuilding.
  • 📊 Historical Application: In Modern Turkish History, "reform" generally refers to Ottoman modernization efforts, while "revolution" refers to the radical changes during Atatürk's era.

• The Millet System:

  • 📚 Definition: The social classification system in the Ottoman Empire, organized by religion rather than ethnicity. It allowed non-Muslim communities to practice their religion and manage their internal affairs.
  • ✅ Origin: Organized by Fatih Sultan Mehmet (Mehmet II).
  • ✅ Structure:
    • Orthodox Community (largest, included Greeks, Bulgarians, Serbs, etc., affiliated with Greek Orthodox Patriarchate in Istanbul)
    • Armenian Community (Gregorian)
    • Jewish Community
  • ✅ Key Feature: Non-Muslims had to belong to a millet to be considered citizens. Each millet had a leader called a "Milletbaşı."
  • ✅ Autonomy: Religious communities had self-rule under their own legal systems.
  • 📈 19th Century Development: New millets emerged, e.g., Bulgarians separating from the Greek Orthodox Patriarchate.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Millet" sounds like "Multi-faith-let" – a system letting multiple faiths govern themselves within the empire.

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2. ⏳ Modernization of the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire's modernization attempts and its decline often progressed simultaneously, influenced by Western developments.

2.1. Western Influences & French Revolution

• Western Impacts: Geographical Discoveries, Renaissance, Reformation, Industrial Revolution, and the French Revolution significantly impacted both Ottoman modernization and decline.
• French Revolution (1789):
  • ✅ Positive Effects: Introduced notions of equality, human rights, and democratization.
  • ⚠️ Negative Effects: Concepts of liberty, nationalism, and national sovereignty challenged the multilingual, multireligious, and multicultural structure of the Ottoman Empire, contributing to its decline.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: The French Revolution was a "Double-Edged Sword" for the Ottomans: good ideas (equality) but bad consequences (nationalism leading to fragmentation).

2.2. Early Modernization Attempts

• Purpose: To ensure the persistence of the Empire and rescue it from decline.

• 1️⃣ Tulip Era (Early 18th Century):

  • 📚 Definition: The first attempts at modernization.
  • ✅ Key Reforms:
    • First Ottoman language printing press founded (by İbrahim Müteferrika).
    • First Ottoman temporary ambassadors sent abroad.
  • ⚠️ Limitation: Reforms were limited and local.
  • ✅ End: Patrona Halil Revolt.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Tulip Era" was the "Tiny Leap" – first steps, but small and short-lived.

• 2️⃣ Selim III (1789-1807):

  • 📚 Definition: Generally considered the beginning of systematic modernization in the Ottoman State.
  • ✅ Key Reforms (Nizam-ı Cedit - New Order):
    • Established first permanent embassies in Europe to follow developments.
    • Created a new army (Nizam-ı Cedit Army) to use European weapons and tactics.
  • ✅ End: Kabakçı Mustafa Revolt (Janissary corps).
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Selim III" was the "Systematic Starter" – he began systematic, European-inspired reforms.

• 3️⃣ Mahmut II (1808-1839):

  • 📚 Definition: Known as the most reformist Sultan, his reign saw the most comprehensive innovations.
  • ✅ Key Reforms:
    • Military:
      • Observed Janissary corruption during Greek Rebellion.
      • Vaka-i Hayriye (Auspicious Event) (1826): Abolished the Janissary corps.
      • Established Asakir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye (new military structure).
    • Administration:
      • Removed Divan organization, established cabinet system.
      • Regulations on social rights and civil servant attire.
      • Established postal organization.
      • Founded Takvim-i Vekayi (first official Ottoman journal).
    • Education:
      • Established military academies (Tıbbıye, Harbiye).
      • Established secondary schools (Rüştiye).
  • ⚠️ Challenges:
    • Greek Rebellion (1821) led to Greek independence (first ethnic community to gain independence).
    • Serbians gained autonomy (1815).
    • Revolts of Ali Pasha of Ioannina and Cavallan Mehmet Ali Pasha.
    • Economical Difficulties: Convention of Baltalimanı (1838) with Great Britain, which widened British rights under capitulations and opened the Ottoman market.
  • ✅ Legacy: Paved the way for Tanzimat reforms.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Mahmut II" was the "Massive Modernizer" – he tackled military, administration, and education, even abolishing the Janissaries.

2.3. Tanzimat Period (1839-1876)

• 📚 Definition: "Regulation, organization, and reform." A series of reforms during the reigns of Abdülmecit (1839-1861) and Abdülaziz (1861-1876).

• Timeline: Begins with Tanzimat Edict (1839), ends with the declaration of the First Constitutional Monarchy (1876).

• 1️⃣ Tanzimat Edict (1839):

  • Reasons:
    • To modernize the Ottoman Empire.
    • To secure territorial integrity against nationalist movements (e.g., Greek rebellion).
    • Aimed to keep Ottoman subjects united, especially non-Muslims.
  • Architect: Mustafa Reşit Paşa (Minister of Foreign Affairs).
  • Targeted Reforms:
    • Security for life and property of all Ottoman subjects.
    • Equality among all Ottoman subjects.
    • Reorganization of civil and criminal codes.
    • Abolition of slavery and slave trade.
    • Tax arrangements.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Tanzimat Edict" was the "Territorial Unity Edict" – aimed at keeping the empire together by promising equality.

• 2️⃣ Islahat Edict (1856):

  • Reasons:
    • Inability to fully implement Tanzimat reforms.
    • Crimean War (1853-1856) made the Ottoman Empire dependent on England and France, leading to Western pressure for more privileges (first external debt incurred).
  • Focus: Carried out promises of Tanzimat, with an even greater emphasis on the status of non-Muslims.
  • Result: Both Tanzimat and Islahat were serious reforms (not constitutions) that promoted a more secular system, limiting millet leaders' authority and reducing the state's Islamic character.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Islahat Edict" was the "International Pressure Edict" – forced by Western powers after the Crimean War, focusing more on non-Muslim rights.

• General Reforms in Tanzimat Period:

  • Legal: European criminal and commercial codes adopted; Yargıtay (Supreme Court) and Danıştay (Council of State) established.
  • Educational: New higher education schools (Mülkiye, Darülmuallimin, Darülmuallimat, Sultani); Darülfünun (first modern university) founded (began teaching under Abdülhamit II).

• Challenges:

  • Financial difficulties (Crimean War exacerbated this, leading to state bankruptcy in 1875).
  • Opposition from Great Powers.
  • Rise of nationalism among subjects.

• Main Ideology: Ottomanism (equality between all subjects).

• Ideologists (Young Ottomans): Namık Kemal, Şinasi, Agâh Efendi, Ziya Paşa, Ali Suavi.

  • Young Ottomans' Belief: Tanzimat reforms were incomplete; a constitutional monarchy based on equality was the only way to create a modern state.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Young Ottomans" were "Young Opinion-makers" – they pushed for a constitution to complete the reforms.

2.4. 1st Constitutional Era (1876) - Kanun-i Esasi

• Background: Young Ottomans (with Mithat Paşa) forced Abdülaziz to abdicate. Abdülhamit II promised a constitution to ascend the throne.
• Kanun-i Esasi (Constitution):
  • Declaration: December 23, 1876.
  • Model: Belgian constitution.
  • Structure: 119 articles; first five described Sultan's rights.
  • ⚠️ Limitation: Did not limit the Sultan's authority; sovereignty's origin remained unchanged.
  • ✅ Key Principle: All Ottoman subjects were equal.
  • Duration: Only in effect for two years (1876-1878).
• Significance: Marked an advance towards a more democratic government with an elected Parliament.
• Ottoman Parliament (Meclis-i Umumi):
  • Assembly of Deputies (Meclis-i Mebusan)
  • Assembly of Lords (Meclis-i Ayan / Senate)
• Ottoman-Russian War (1877-1878) (93 Harbi):
  • Impact: Abdülhamit II suspended the assembly and the constitution.
  • Aftermath: Ayastefanos Agreement (not accepted by Western powers).
  • Congress of Berlin:
    • Key Issues: Eastern Question, Armenian Question, Macedonian Question raised internationally for the first time.
    • Treaty of Berlin:
      • Cyprus rented to England.
      • Three new states: Romania, Serbia, Montenegro. Bulgaria became a princedom.
      • Ottoman State lost all control in the Balkans.
      • England's foreign policy of respecting Ottoman territorial integrity ended.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Kanun-i Esasi" was the "King's Constitution" – it existed, but the Sultan still held ultimate power. The 1st Era was "Short-Lived Liberty."

2.5. Abdülhamit Era (1878-1908)

• Character: Absolute monarchy (istibdat) after the cancellation of the constitution and parliament.
• Ideology: Islamism.
• Reforms (despite autocratic rule):
  • Reorganized Mülkiye.
  • Founded commercial, veterinary, and art schools.
  • Darülfünun (first university) began education.
  • Improved telegraph system.
  • Established railways (Syria to Palestine, Ankara to Konya).
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Abdülhamit Era" was the "Autocratic Advancement" – autocratic rule, but still some modernization in infrastructure and education.

2.6. Young Turk Revolution of 1908 & Committee of Union and Progress (CUP)

• Who were Young Turks?
  • Mostly young, from bureaucratic class (military/civilian officers).
  • Educated in modern schools.
  • Bourgeois ideology.
  • Aspirations: Create a modern Turkish society on the European model, make constitutional monarchy functional.
  • Formation: Established secret organization "Ottoman Union (İttihad-ı Osmani)" in Istanbul (1889).
  • Emergence: Uncovered with Armenian protests (1895).
  • Congresses:
    • 1902 (Prince Sabahattin): Debated saving the empire and implementing the constitution. Sabahattin advocated cooperation with foreign countries against Abdülhamit and autonomous government (adem-i merkeziyet).
    • 1907: All Ottoman ideological movements met, prepared a manifesto to remove Abdülhamit, and formed the Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).
• Promulgation of 2nd Constitution (1908):
  • Reasons:
    • Reval Negotiations (England & Russia planning to share Ottoman territories) – Unionists learned of these plans.
    • Unionists blamed Abdülhamit.
    • Revolt in Macedonia led by Resneli Niyazi and Enver (with 400 people).
    • Rumelian people supported the movement.
  • Outcome: Pressure led to the re-implementation of Kanun-i Esasi. "Liberty (hürriyet)" announced after 30 years.
• CUP Structure:
  • Committee of Union and Progress (local & central congresses)
  • Party of Union and Progress (deputies in Ottoman Parliament)
  • Corporate leadership, dual civil and military structure.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Young Turks" were the "Youthful Uprising" – young, educated officers who forced the constitution back.

2.7. 31st March Incident (1909)

• 📚 Definition: A counter-coup attempt against the constitutional system and the CUP.
• Response: CUP formed the "Army of Action (Hareket Ordusu)" in Salonika, commanded by Mahmut Şevket Paşa (Mustafa Kemal was among the officers).
• Outcome: Abdülhamit II was deposed by the Assembly. This gave CUP absolute control over the constitutional monarchy. Extensive constitutional restoration in 1909.
• 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "31st March Incident" was the "CUP's Consolidation" – a challenge that ultimately strengthened their power.

2.8. Ideologies of the Constitutional Era

These ideologies shaped political thought and policy during this tumultuous period.

• Ottomanism (İttihat-ı Anasır):

  • 📚 Definition: Equality between all subjects, regardless of religion or ethnicity.
  • Prevalence: Common in Tanzimat Era.
  • Decline: Expired after the Balkan Wars.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Ottomanism" was "One Ottoman Nation" – trying to unite everyone under a common identity.

• Islamism:

  • 📚 Definition: Emphasized Islamic unity and identity.
  • Prevalence: Common in Abdülhamit Era.
  • Decline: Expired with the Albanian Revolt (1910) and Arab Revolt (1916), showing national identity could be stronger than religious unity.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Islamism" was "Islamic Solidarity" – uniting Muslims, but ultimately failed against rising nationalism.

• Turkism:

  • 📚 Definition: Emphasized Turkish national identity and culture.
  • Prevalence: Common after the Balkan Wars.
  • Representatives: Ziya Gökalp, Yusuf Akçura.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Turkism" was "Turkish First" – focusing on a distinct Turkish identity.

• Westernism:

  • 📚 Definition: Advocated for adopting Western institutions, culture, and technology.
  • Prevalence: Had an impact in both 1st and 2nd Constitutional Eras.
  • Representatives: Celal Nuri, Abdullah Cevdet.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Westernism" was "Window to the West" – believing Western ways were the path to progress.

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3. ⚔️ Pre-World War I Conflicts

These conflicts further weakened the Ottoman Empire and set the stage for WWI.

3.1. Tripolitanian (Turco-Italian) War (1911)

• Combatants: Italy vs. Ottoman Empire.
• Causes: Italy's aspiration to colonize Tripolitania (modern-day Libya), the last Ottoman territory in North Africa, for raw materials and markets.
• Ottoman Challenges:
  • Diminished ability to resist due to need for defense against Balkan attacks.
  • Italian control of seas prevented sending large forces.
  • Volunteers (Enver, Mustafa Kemal, Ali Fethi) led native Libyan guerrilla resistance.
• Outcome:
  • Ottomans forced to seek armistice due to impending Balkan Wars.
  • Ouchy Peace Agreement: Ottoman State lost its last North African territory. Dodecanese (Oniki Ada) and Rhodes (Rodos) temporarily left to Italy (until 1947).
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Tripolitanian War" was the "Territory Loss Trigger" – the last African land lost, and a sign of impending Balkan trouble.

3.2. Balkan Wars (1912-1913)

• Causes: Nationalism, results of Berlin Peace Conference, Bulgarian independence (1908). Russia organized alliances among Balkan countries (Montenegro, Greece, Bulgaria, Serbia).

• 1️⃣ First Balkan War:

  • Combatants: Balkan League vs. Ottoman State.
  • Events: Balkan countries attacked; Edirne and Kırklareli occupied by Bulgaria.
  • Outcomes:
    • Albania gained independence (Albanian revolt in 1910 showed Islamism's failure to unite Muslims).
    • Ottoman Empire lost Aegean islands, Macedonia, East and West Thrace.
    • Internal Impact: Defeat led to CUP blaming the government.
    • Bab-ı Ali Baskını (1913): CUP seized absolute power through a coup.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "First Balkan War" was the "Big Balkan Blow" – massive territorial losses and CUP seizing power.

• 2️⃣ Second Balkan War:

  • Causes: Large Bulgarian expansion after the First Balkan War led other Balkan countries to ally against Bulgaria. Ottoman State sought to regain lost territories.
  • Events: Bulgaria defeated by Greece and Serbia; Romania occupied North Bulgarian territories. Ottoman State regained Edirne and Kırklareli.
  • Outcomes:
    • CUP reinforced power.
    • Turkism ideology arose; Ottomanism ended.
    • Ottoman Empire lost all control in the Balkans and Aegean Sea.
    • Treaties: Istanbul Agreement (Ottoman-Bulgaria), Athens Agreement (Ottoman-Greece).
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Second Balkan War" was the "Bulgarian Backlash" – other nations ganged up on Bulgaria, allowing Ottomans to reclaim some land, but confirming the end of their Balkan presence.

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4. 🌎 World War I (1914-1918)

4.1. Background & Causes

• Long-term Causes: French Revolution (Nationalism), Industrial Revolution (Colonialism).
• Apparent Causes:
  • Bosnian Crisis of 1908 (Austrian annexation of Bosnia).
  • Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand in Sarajevo (1914) -> Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia.

4.2. Alliances

• Entente (Allied) Powers: Britain, France, Russia, Serbia, Japan, Italy (1915), USA (1917), Greece (1917).
• Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire, Bulgaria (1915).

4.3. Ottoman Entry & Campaigns (1914-1915)

• Ottoman Entry (1914): Joined Central Powers based on a secret Ottoman-German Alliance (August 1914).

  • Trigger: German warships Goeben and Breslav escaped British ships, passed through Dardanelles, were "handed over" to Ottomans (renamed Yavuz and Midilli), and bombarded Russian harbors in the Black Sea. Russia declared war.
  • Jihad-ı Ekber: Sultan Mehmet V declared a "Great Jihad" to Muslim communities under British control, aiming for support against England.
  • Impact on Allies: Increased Triple Entente's military burden; Russia had to fight on Caucasian and Persian fronts.

• Caucasian Front (1914):

  • Combatants: Ottoman forces vs. Russia.
  • Ottoman Objective: Enver Pasha aimed to recapture Batum and Kars, overrun Georgia, and occupy NW Persia/oil fields.
  • Outcome: Ottomans lost ground; over 100,000 soldiers died (e.g., Battle of Sarıkamış).

• Dardanelles Campaign (Çanakkale Front) (1915):

  • Combatants: Ottoman forces vs. Allied Powers (Britain, France, ANZAC).
  • Allied Objectives: Help Russia, control Istanbul, gain victory against Germany/Austria, control Ottoman State.
  • Naval Attack (March 18, 1915): Allied strong navy attacked Dardanelles Strait but was defeated by Ottoman forces.
  • Land Campaign: Allies tried to gain control overland (Seddülbahir, Arıburnu). Mustafa Kemal gained a great victory.
  • Outcome: Major Ottoman victory, major Allied failure. Allies withdrew in 1916. Encouraged Bulgaria to join Central Powers.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Dardanelles" was the "Defensive Triumph" – a crucial Ottoman victory against overwhelming odds.

• Canal Campaign (1915):

  • Ottoman Objective: Cemal Pasha led forces to capture Egypt and strike the Suez Canal.
  • Outcome: Unsuccessful.

4.4. Homefront Issues & Secret Agreements (1915-1916)

• Tehcir Law (Relocation Law) (1915):

  • Context: Isolated Armenian rebellions in Eastern Anatolia, cooperation with Allies.
  • Law's Articles: Ottoman Army could move people from villages/towns in case of spying/treachery; commanders could interfere in case of offense/disobedience.
  • Application: Armenians were migrated to Southern regions (Syria, Lebanon), then part of Ottoman territories.
  • ⚠️ Important Note: The law's text did not explicitly mention Armenians, but it was applied to them due to the specific wartime circumstances.

• Secret Agreements for Ottoman Partition:

  • Istanbul Agreement (1915): Britain, France, Russia agreed to give Istanbul and the Straits to Russia (Britain used this to keep Russia in the war).
  • Treaty of London (1915): Italy joined Allies; promised Antalya to Italy, and Italian rights in Adriatic Sea.
  • Sykes-Picot Agreement (April 1916): Between England (Sir Mark Sykes) and France (George Picot) to share Ottoman Arabian territories.
    • France: Syria, Lebanon, Kilikya (Çukurova), Mosul.
    • England: Iraq, Jordan, North Palestine.
    • Post-war adjustment: England got Mosul from France in exchange for a share of oil production.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip for Secret Agreements: "I Love Syria, So Much!"
    • Istanbul (Russia gets Istanbul/Straits)
    • London (Italy gets Antalya)
    • Sykes-Picot (France gets Syria, England gets Iraq)
    • Saint Jean de Maurienne (Italy gets Izmir/Aydın/Konya)

4.5. Key Events of 1917

• Caucasian Front (1916-1917): Russian forces gained control of Mus, Rize, Trabzon, Ispir, Erzurum.
• Iraq Front (1916): Ottomans gained a significant victory against England.
• Arab Revolt (1916): Further weakened Ottoman control in the Middle East.
• Bolshevik Revolution (1917):
  • Russia withdrew from WWI, ceased hostilities with Ottomans.
  • Armistice of Erzincan (Dec 5, 1917): Ended armed conflicts between Russia and Ottomans.
  • Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (March 3, 1918): Bolshevik Russia returned Batum, Kars, Ardahan to Ottoman State.
• US Entry into WWI (1917): Became an "associated power," filling Russia's void.
• St Jean de Maurienne Agreement (April 1917): New secret agreement between England, France, Italy. Izmir, Aydın, Konya promised to Italy (due to Russia's withdrawal changing previous plans).
• Balfour Declaration (1917): Lord Arthur Balfour (UK Foreign Minister) declared support for a Jewish state in Palestine, gaining Jewish support for Allied Powers.
• Greece Entry into WWI (1917): Joined Allies, creating a critical point for Ottomans later (Greece would occupy İzmir in 1919).

4.6. Wilson's Fourteen Points (1918)

• 📚 Definition: Principles declared by US President Woodrow Wilson for establishing a new post-war order (e.g., self-determination, end of secret diplomacy).
• Key Points Relevant to Ottomans:
  • Point 12: The Turkish portion of the Ottoman Empire should be assured secure sovereignty, but other nationalities under Turkish rule should have security of life and autonomous development. Dardanelles to be a free passage under international guarantees.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: Wilson's 14 Points were "World's New Rules" – aiming for a fair, open world, but still carving up empires.

4.7. Consequences of WWI

• Empire Dissolution: Ottoman, Austria-Hungary, Russia, Germany dissolved.
• Political Change: Monarchies broke down, republics established.
• New States: Soviet Union (instead of Russia), Turkey (instead of Ottoman State), Austria, Hungary, Poland, Czechoslovakia (from Austria-Hungary).
• Global Impact: Social, economic, political depressions; rise of totalitarian/authoritarian governments.
• Future Conflict: WWI was a main reason for WWII.

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5. 🕊️ Armistice Period & Turkish War of Independence (1918-1922)

5.1. Mudros Armistice (October 30, 1918)

• Signatories: Ottoman State (Hüseyin Rauf Bey) and Allied Powers (Admiral Calthorpe for England).

• Location: British battleship Agamemnon.

• Key Articles:

  • I: Opening of Dardanelles and Bosphorus, secure access to Black Sea; Allied occupation of forts.
  • VII: Allies' right to occupy any strategic points threatening their security.
  • XXIV: Allies' right to occupy any part of the six Armenian provinces in case of disorder.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Mudros" was "Military Disarmament & Occupation Rights" – effectively ending Ottoman sovereignty.

• Post-Armistice Occupations:

  • England: Mosul, Iskenderun, Antakya, Batum, Kilis, Antep, Maraş, Birecik, Samsun, Urfa, Merzifon, Kars, Haydarpaşa Station.
  • France: Mersin, East Thrace Railways, Adana, Pozantı, East Railways, Taurus Tunnel System, Afyon.
  • England & France (Together): Dardanelles, Turgutlu, Aydın Railways.
  • Italy: Konya Station, Antalya, Kuşadası, Marmaris, Bodrum, Fethiye, Afyon, Burdur.

5.2. Governments of the Era (Until İzmir Occupation, May 1919)

• Talat Pasha (until end of WWI)
• Ahmet İzzet Pasha (signed Mudros Armistice)
• Tevfik Pasha (without Unionists)
• Damat Ferit (Anglophile)

5.3. Paris Peace Conference (January 1919)

• Participants: England, France, USA, Italy, Japan (Prime Ministers & Foreign Ministers).
• "Big Four": Woodrow Wilson (USA), David Lloyd George (Britain), Georges Clemenceau (France), Vittorio Emanuele Orlando (Italy).
• Outcome: Decided peace agreements with defeated countries (Versailles with Germany, Saint Germain with Austria, Neuilly with Bulgaria, Trianon with Hungary).
• Key Decision for Ottomans: İzmir was decided to be occupied by Greek forces.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Paris Peace Conference" was the "Partitioning Plan" – where the victors decided the fate of the defeated, including İzmir.

5.4. Mustafa Kemal's Path to Independence

• Pre-Samsun: Commander of Lightning Group of Armies in Syria. Returned to Istanbul after dissolution, published newspaper "Minber."

• Arrival in Samsun (May 19, 1919):

  • Context: Greek movements in Black Sea region; Allies threatened occupation under Article 7 of Mudros.
  • Role: Ottoman government appointed Mustafa Kemal as Inspector of the 9th Army Units to control conflicts. His authority covered Samsun, Van, Trabzon, Erzurum, and civil/military administration of these cities.
  • Simultaneous Event: İzmir occupied by Greek forces (May 15, 1919) with Allied support.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Samsun" was "Starting the Spark" – Mustafa Kemal's arrival ignited the national resistance.

• Havza Circular (May 28, 1919):

  • Main Idea: Create awareness against occupations; urged public to protest Mudros Armistice.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Havza" was "Heighten Awareness" – first call for public protest.

• Amasya Circular (June 22, 1919):

  • Key Declarations:
    • Country's integrity and nation's independence are in danger.
    • Central government is unable to fulfill responsibilities.
    • Nation's independence will be saved by its own determination.
    • A national congress to be convened in Sivas.
  • Significance: Outlined the method, reason, and ambition of the National War of Independence.
  • 💡 Mnemonic Tip: "Amasya" was "Announcing the Aim" – declaring the nation's resolve and the plan for a congress.

• Erzurum Congress (July 23, 1919):

  • Leadership: Mustafa Kemal resigned military duty, elected president.
  • Decisions:
    • Fatherland is an indivisible whole within national frontiers.
    • Temporary government to be formed if central government fails…